CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The Nigerian society, the pond from which its writers fish for the raw materials to create art, has over the years interested critics in different ways (Joseph and Romanus, 2014). Ekpa and Nta (2006) as cited in Joseph and Romanus, 2014) aver that literary production in Nigeria, as obtains in other parts of the world, is witnessing writers’ engagement with social transformations. Nigerian writers such as Achebe, Soyinka, Osundare, and Ojaide have used their works to challenge racism, colonialism and political oppression. This is referred to as satire. Different scholars have viewed satire in different ways. For instance, Daniel (2016) sees satire as a genre of literature in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, corporations, government or society itself, into improvement. The definition captures that the aim of satire is criticism and ‘ridicule’. Criticism is usually directed towards targeted persons, institutions or communities due to their misconducts, with the aim of effecting positive change in their behaviours (Adeoti, and Elegbeleye, 2005). In accordance with this assumption, Abram (1999) views satire as a literary art of reducing a subject by ridiculing it and frowning at its attitudes through contempt or scorn. According to Hornby (2000), satire is an agent of social criticism against a person or institution through the use of humour to unveil societal vices, faults or weaknesses. Equally, Iwuchukwu (2009), perceives satire as any literary work which holds up a society to ridicule or shows the foolishness or weakness of an idea or custom and towards its attitude of amusement, contempt or scorn. From the foregoing, it could be inferred that satire is a piece of writing that uses criticism and ridicule to correct the moral decadence and injustice in the society. Satire, in most written genres of literature, helps the authors to achieve their purposes of writing. It also helps to build up the themes of writers in their writing (Ogonna, 2015).
Satire is a powerful art form which has the ability to point out the deficiencies in certain human endeavours and societal norms which result from them such that they become absurd and even hilarious (Hamadi, 2017). The technique of satire has been adopted in this study to criticize the menace or decadence of terrorism, insecurity Islamic extremism and injustice in the Nigerian society. The concepts of terrorism and insecurity have been in the interest of Nigerian writers, activists and government for over a decade now. National security is a premise for national economic growth and development of nations. This is because peaceful nations attract foreign investors while the domestic investors freely operate the economy with little or no tensions and apprehensions. According to Nwanegbo and Odigbo (2013), security is the pillar upon which every meaningful development could be achieved and sustained. Nigeria as a nation state has witnessed unprecedented series of agitations in the forms of kidnapping and abduction, armed robberies, bombing, and carnages of all forms and magnitude in the past decade and a half. The most dastard so far is the activities of a group of some Islamic militants that called themselves the ‘Boko Haram’, interpreted to mean ‘western education is evil’. With the coming to the scene by Boko Haram in 2002, the insecurity situation in Nigeria seemed to have assumed higher and more complex dimensions. A part from the frequency and intensity of deadly attacks and carnages, insecurity situation in Nigeria cuts across cities, towns and villages that there is hardly anywhere to run to for cover. Lives and properties are not safe for urban dwellers as well as for the rural dwellers. People live in apprehension almost every day.
In fairness, insecurity is not a problem that is unique to Nigeria. It has geographical spread across the globe. The United States, United Kingdom and many countries face the challenges of insecurity within their borders on a daily basis (Adejumo, 2011).The difference between these nations and Nigeria according to Adejumo is how they manage the threats. The speed with which evil is growing in Nigeria and the merciless ways that lives of innocent ones are being wasted are worrisome. People are burdened on a daily basis with psychological and emotional trauma resulting from gory sights of lifeless and mutilated bodies of loved family members, close associates and colleagues littered on the streets, public squares and everywhere. Apart, a stable economy cannot be guaranteed in the face of insecurity. The contemporary Nigeria has become a theatre of genocide, bloodshed and insecurity over the past three years due to the carnage activities of terrorist groups.
Many nations have looked to their education to help them overcome growth and developmental challenges at one time or the other. One of the beliefs of Nigeria’s philosophy of education is that “education is an instrument for national development and social change” (Federal Republic of Nigeria; 2009:5). National development is impeded by restiveness of youths in the forms of bombing, killing, maiming and wanton destruction of public and private properties. How can Nigeria’s education be positioned to withstand the forces of terrorism and guarantee security of the nation? The objective of this paper therefore is to suggest values, moral and religious education as solutions to terrorism and insecurity in Nigeria.
Emphatically, the word terrorism comes from the reign of terror instigated by Maxmilien Robespierre in 1793 following the French revolution (About.com, 2014). This implies that terrorism is not a child of modernity; it is as old as the existence of man. The history is as old as human’s willingness to use violence to effect politics (About.com, 2014). Terrorism does not lend itself to one single acceptable definition. The term according to Terrorism Research (Undated) is better understood from the point of view of the person that is being represented. This is because to the victims of terrorism the perpetrators are terrorists while to the perpetrators, terrorism is an act targeted at reforming or enforcing change. Terrorism is of both national and international concern. This is because their activities most times are not concentrated in a particular place. Its waves span across geographical boundaries both local and international. Terrorist activities had led to displacement of people, loss of lives and properties, feelings of suspicion, anger and hatred as well as psychological and emotional trauma and general state of insecurity.
Symbolically, salient among the issues discussed in this study is the concept of Islamic extremism. Islamic extremism or radical Islam is associated with the religion of Islam. The factor of Islamic extremism in the conceptualization of terrorism in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. It deals with the way Islamic believers go to the extreme of their faith to condemn salient aspects of people’s culture that are morally sacrosanct and humane. Some of the ideas which are presented in the texts are: Islamic extremism, menace of insecurity, Boko Haram Insurgency, Shiites militancy, religious supremacy, Indoctrination etc. The history of terrorism in Nigeria is traceable to the emergence of a group of Islamic militants called “Boko Haram” in 2002. “Boko Haram” is translated to mean “western education is evil”. The progressive destructive activities of “Boko Haram” made the US department of states to designate them as terrorist organization in November, 2013 (Wikipedia). Since the emergence of this sect in 2002, human lives had been lost to their attacks in thousands. The Vanguard newspaper put the death toll at more than 12,000 with more than 8000 injured or maimed and thousands of other innocent Nigerians displaced (Vanguard, 18th May, 2014). The killings have continued unabated until recently that they are being gradually overcome. Their escalated activities created widespread insecurity among Nigerians, increase tensions between various ethnic communities, interrupt development activities, frighten off investors and generate concern among Nigeria’s northern neighbors (Eme and Ibietam, 2012).
“Boko Haram” aside, insecurity in Nigeria is heightened by the activities of other ethnic militias such as the Niger Delta militants’ etcetera, whose activities manifest in kidnapping, abduction, pipeline vandalism, armed robberies, and hostage taking. Other activities that have heightened insecurity in Nigeria also include human and drug trafficking, porous borders that allow infiltration of illegal aliens, arms and ammunitions, ethno-religious conflicts, political based violence, economic based violence and periodic outbreak of some deadly diseases with the most recent being “Ebola”. In light of the above issues, Nigerian writers have written profusely to criticize the immoral activities, decadence and injustice perpetrated by the so-called Boko Haram sects which often disrupt the peace and security of the nation.
Recently, literary writers have made productive attempts to satirize the decadence if terrorism and Islamic extremism in the Nigerian society. This study is concerned with Elnathan John’s Born on a Thursday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret. Elnathan John’s Born on a Thursday is a prose work which unravels certain socio-political and religious issues. At the centre of Elnathan John’s insightful debut novel about religious extremism in Nigeria is its eponymous protagonist, Dantala, whose name translates as Born on a Tuesday. Dantala is sent away by his father to attend Qur’anic school. He falls in with a group of street boys; when they are hired by a political party to burn the headquarters of an opposition party, the police get involved and Dantala must flee to save his life. He ends up in Sokoto State, where an imam called Sheikh Jamal takes him under his wing. Here he finds some stability and becomes friends with Jibril, who teaches him English, a language that “sounds soft and easy like one does not need to open one’s mouth a lot or use a lot of air or energy” – unlike Arabic, where “one uses everything, the neck, the jaws, the tongue. Dantala’s world is not soft and easy. Horrific things happen: prepubescent boys kill and commit atrocities for political ideologies they do not understand, and mothers depend on alms to feed their children. Hypocrisy abounds; corruption is rife; young men are drawn to religious extremism, there is tension between Shia and the Sunni Muslims, but also redemption in language and style. John writes with an understated elegance and we discover humour and wisdom in the most unexpected of places. Similarly, Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret is a collection of fifteen short stories that give readers a glimpse of what it means to be a woman in an Orthodox Muslim society in Egypt. The stories are not interconnected, but together they form a vivid portrayal of Rifaat’s world. Against the background above, the study intends to investigate the aspects of terrorism and Islamic extremism in the Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Terrorism have eaten deep into the fabrics of Nigeria as a nation. Terrorism is an insidious act common and conducted daily over decades and has been responsible for the physical and or structural violence experienced by many people in Nigeria (Udama, 2013). Terrorism has suddenly become a serious challenge Nigeria has been grappling with. The contemporary Nigeria society is engulfed by terrible acts of Terrorism. Be it kidnapping by the Niger Delta Militants or bomb attacks by members of the Boko Haram sect. The insecurity situation has worsened since 2012 with the Nigerian government admitting that its security forces intercepted over 200 rocket launchers and rocket propelled grenades from terrorist gangs at the Nigeria borders with Chad and Niger Republic before June 2012.
The acts of terrorism have seriously caused untold hardship to the Nigerian populace. In the face of this, several literary writers have written from both ends of the literary genres to mitigate or curb this menace. Despite this effort, the act of terrorism worsens as it spreads like wildfire from the Northern part of the country to the West and South. It is against this backdrop that the present study intends to do a critical survey of terrorism, insecurity and Islamic extremism in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret.
ASPECTS OF TERRORISM AND ISLAMIC EXTREMISM IN JONATHAN JOHN’S BORN ON A TUESDAY AND DISTANT VIEW A MINARET BY ALIFA RIFAAT
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this study is to do a critical survey of terrorism, insecurity and Islamic extremism in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret. The specific objectives are to:
- examine the themes of terrorism in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret;
- Identify the themes of Islamic Extremism in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret;
- Ascertain the themes of insecurity in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret; and
- Interpret the texts as a justification of satire in the typical Nigerian society.
1.4 Research Questions
The following questions have been formulated to guide the research.
- What are the themes of terrorism in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret?
- What are the themes of Islamic Extremism in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret?
- What are the themes of insecurity in Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret?
- How are the texts justified as correlate of satire in the typical Nigerian society?
1.5 Scope of the Study
This study covers the scope of Nigerian literature. It focuses on issues discussed or bordering most Nigerian writers who are seeking redress on the issues of terrorism, insecurity Islamic extremism and social injustice in the society. This study is also a satire because it is bent towards ridiculing or criticizing the menace or decadence in the Nigerian society.
The study also covers the prose genre and how it has been patronized effectively by contemporary Nigerian writers who are one way or the other victim of the menace or decadence of insecurity and terrorism in the Nigerian community. The study would be focusing on the prose work. The study would be concentrating on two texts: Elnathan John’s Born on a Tuesday and Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret. The study will focus on the underlying ideologies that are inherently projected by both texts. The study will engage in how the novelist has utilized language features to illuminate his conceptions and convincing picture of how terrorism, poverty, corruption and brutality perpetrated by security forces have eaten deep into the fabrics of Nigeria’s day-to-day interaction.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study will serve useful general scholarly purposes. Essentially, the study will enhance a profound appreciation of the selected literary text. Hence, it will generally provide more profound insights regarding ideological and implicit meaning derivation from the novelists. The study will further reveal encoded meanings at several levels, and therefore, necessitate comprehensive analyses of the novel from multiple perspectives, including the ideological perspectives, in order to effectively capture textual messages. Invariably, it will clearly show that a textual analysis helps in explicating the underlying ideologies and implicit meanings. It will also, ultimately, establish the scholarly consensus that Nigerian socio-political contexts remain the backbone of the writers’ literary prose style as it discovers topical socio-political and other implications of its findings.
A study of this nature is important as it helps us to know how language contributes to meaning generation in prosaic texts. Since a literary work does exist in vacuum, it is significant to study how Elnathan John and Alifa Rifaat have captured the direct and indirect experiences about the socio-political state of Nigeria which considers issues of terrorism, Islamic extremism, insecurity and so on.
This work will expand the frontiers of knowledge. It will make a place in the body of knowledge and help upcoming researchers to understand how Elnathan John and Alifa Rifaat have portrayed salient themes in the novels.
1.7 Methodology
This study will be adopting a descriptive qualitative research design. By so doing, two texts will be selected for analysis through purposive sampling method. The texts are chosen based on their thematic configuration which is based on terrorism and Islamic extremism in the Nigerian society. Content analysis will be conducted on both texts by analyzing their conceptual and thematic analysis.
1.8 Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined for the purpose of clarity and easy comprehension:
- 1. Terrorism
From the etymological concept, the word terrorism comes from Latin and French words: terrere, and terrorisme, meaning “to frighten,” and “state rule by terror” respectively. Terrorism is an insidious act common and conducted daily over decades and has been
- 2. Insecurity
Insecurity is a feeling of inadequacy (not being good enough) and uncertainty. It produces anxiety about your goals, relationships, and ability to handle certain situations. Everybody deals with insecurity from time to time. It can appear in all areas of life and come from a variety of causes.
- 3. Islam
The word “Islam” means “submission to the will of God.” Followers of Islam are called Muslims. Muslims are monotheistic and worship one, all-knowing God, who in Arabic is known as Allah. Followers of Islam aim to live a life of complete submission to Allah.
- 4. Islamic Extremism
Islamic extremism is an act of religious fanatism: an act of violent Jihad permitted by the Quran essentially because of religious sanctions. It involves depicting the retroactive side of the Islamic religion as utmost.
- 5. Prose
Prose is an important genre of literature which tells the fictional tale or story about an imagination. The most popular and well-patronized sub-genre of prose is the novel, and that is the focus for our selection in this study.
- 6. Novel
A novel is a sub-genre of prose. It is the commonest and the most patronized genre of prose which is written in chapters.
1.9 Biography of the Authors
1.9.1 Biography of Elnathan John
Elnathan John was born in Kaduna, in north-west Nigeria, in 1982. He attended Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and the Nigerian Law School, where he obtained law degrees. His short story "Bayan Layi", published in Per Contra, was shortlisted for the Caine Prize for African Writing in 2013. He was shortlisted again for the Caine Prize in 2015 for his short story "Flying". His writing has been published in The Economist, The Guardian, Per Contra, Hazlitt, ZAM Magazine, Evergreen Review, and Chimurenga's The Chronic. John's first novel, Born on a Tuesday, was published in 2016 by Cassava Republic Press in 2015 and in the US by Grove Atlantic. Born on a Tuesday was shortlisted in September 2016 for the NLNG Nigeria Prize for Literature, Africa's largest literary award. It won a Betty Trask Award.
His second book, Becoming Nigerian, A Guide, a collection of satirical pieces, was published by Cassava Republic Press in 2019. His third book, a graphic novel, On Ajayi Crowther Street, is forthcoming from Cassava Republic Press in November 2019. Elnathan John is a Civitella Ranieri Fellow (2015).He writes a weekly satirical column for the Sunday Trust newspaper and speaks regularly on Nigerian literature, media and politics. He is one of the judges of the 2019 Man Booker International Prize.
Trained as a lawyer and coming to prominence as a cultural commentator and satirist, Elnathan John is a dynamic young voice from Nigeria. Born on a Tuesday is his stirring, starkly rendered first novel, about an intelligent young boy struggling to find his place in a society that is fracturing along extreme religious and political lines. Working in the tradition of Achebe, Elnathan John has penned a coming-of-age novel worthy of Twain. At times tragic, at times humorous, Born on a Tuesday is the story of those who find the courage to transcend violence even when born to its confines. John has produced a thoughtful, nuanced first novel, employing a style that is as unadorned as it is unflinching. This young lawyer, who has twice been a finalist for the Caine Prize for African Writing, may be brash, but he is also capable of depth and subtlety. His restraint in handling difficult material is just one of his many gifts. Born on a Tuesday brings home the reality of what is happening in northern Nigeria with a power the news reports of Boko Haram’s atrocities can’t adequately project. Elnathan John is a writer to watch. A nuanced first novel illuminates the rise of radical Islam in northern Nigeria.
1.9.2 Biography of Alifa Rifaat
Fatimah Rifaat was born on 5th of June, 1930 and died in January 1996. She is better known by her pen name Alifa Rifaat was an Egyptian author whose controversial short stories are renowned for their depictions of the dynamics of female sexuality, relationships, and loss in rural Egyptian culture. While taking on such controversial subjects, Fatimah Rifaat's protagonists remained religiously faithful with passive feelings towards their fate. Her stories did not attempt to undermine the patriarchal system; rather they were used to depict the problems inherent in a patriarchal society when men do not adhere to their religious teachings that advocate for the kind treatment of women. Fatimah Rifaat used the pseudonym Alifa to prevent embarrassment on the part of her family due to the themes of her stories and her writing career.
1.10 Synopsis of the Two Texts
The two texts under study are reviewed in this section with respect to their summary and plot development.
1.10.1 Synopsis of Born on a Tuesday
Born on a Tuesday is a novel set in the northern part of Nigeria. It’s simple, unembellished prose narrated by Dantala, a smart, inquisitive street kid and Islamic scholar. In the far reaches of North-western Nigeria, Dantala lives among a gang of street boys who sleep under a Kuka tree. During the election, the boys are paid by the Small Party to cause trouble. When their attempt to burn down the opposition’s local headquarters ends in disaster, Dantala must run for his life, leaving his best friend behind. He makes his way to a mosque that provides him with food, shelter, and guidance. With his quick aptitude and modest nature, Dantala becomes a favoured apprentice to the mosque’s benevolent sheikh. But before long, he is faced with a terrible conflict of loyalties. His mother is dying back in his native village, his brothers have joined a rival sect, and one of the sheikh’s closest advisers begins to raise his own radical movement. As bloodshed erupts in the city around him, Dantala must decide what kind of Muslim—and what kind of man—he wants to be.
The novel begins in Bayan Layi in 2003. Dantala, the novel’s narrator and protagonist, is friendly with a group of boys who hang out under a Kuka tree. One of the boys, Banda, finds them work for the Small Party, which is hoping to win the upcoming election. When the Big Party reportedly cheats, the boys are sent to the Big Party headquarters, which they burn down. When the police arrive, Dantala flees to Sokoto. In Sokoto, Dantala meets two leaders of a local mosque, Sheikh Jamal and Malam Abdul-Nur. They allow him to stay on working for them, so long as he returns to Dogon Icce to give his mother the news. He does so.
In 2006, Dantala is still living in Sokoto and helping out at the mosque. One day, a boy named Gabriel—whose name is changed into Arabic as “Jibril”—arrives at the mosque. Dantala discovers that he is Malam Abdul-Nur’s younger brother. In 2009, three years later, Dantala and Jibril have struck up a friendship. Jibril teaches Dantala English, and Dantala teaches Jibril Arabic. Dantala loves words and keeps a list of all the new English words he learns. When Dantala’s mother passes away, he returns to DogonIcce for the funeral. There, he encounters his brothers, who have all become radical Shiite Muslim fighters. He is distressed to hear news from Jibril that Sheikh’s car has been attacked and that he has been shot. Dantala returns to Sokoto.
Sheikh wakes from his coma. Dantala develops a crush on the Sheikh’s daughter, Aisha. Meanwhile, Malam Abdul-Nur blames the attack on Shiite Muslims and a group of the mosque’s followers proceed to burn down the nearest Shiite mosque. Dantala accompanies Sheikh to an important meeting. Later, he discovers that Jibril is sleeping with Malam Abdul-Nur’s wife.
Part Four begins with Jibril convincing Dantala to go see a prostitute. He goes, but he does not sleep with the woman. While the Sheikh pressures Dantala to consider marriage, Dantala continues obsessing about Aisha. Meanwhile, Malam Abdul-Nur returns from a trip to Saudi Arabia newly radicalized. He leaves Sheikh’s mosque to start his own movement, taking Jibril with him. Sheikh and Malam Abdul-Nur debate one another in a televised appearance in Saudi Arabia. At the same time, Alhaji Usman, the mosque’s financier, considers running for Senate. One day, a group of men dressed as policemen arrive at the mosque, drag Sheikh out, and cut his head off. The region devolves into chaos, as followers of the Sheikh from vigilante groups to hunt down the Mujahideen, led by Malam Abdul-Nur.
When the state attempts to regain control of the region, Dantala is arrested and thrown into prison. There, he is tortured and left for dead. After nine months, Dantala is released, his spirit broken, and returned to a street corner in Sokoto. He revisits his old room, where he sees a message from Jibril telling Dantala that he will come back for him. Dantala learns that Aisha and Alhaji Usman have gotten married.
While this is a work of fiction, Dantala’s story feels real and authentic. His coming-of-age story is at once gripping, heart-wrenching and encouraging. Religion is portrayed in a very nuanced way. It can be a source of courage and resilience, a source of strife or a pawn in the power play of local, national and international politics. What remains the same throughout the book, however, is the fact that no matter what happens on a political or religious level, the true victims in all of this are the people who form the majority of the society that is affected.
1.10.2 Synopsis of Alifa Rifaat’s Distant View a Minaret
Distant View a Minaret is a novel that tells the tale of a woman and her husband who are having sex. The wife thinks about her lack of sexual fulfillment—her husband always stops as soon as he climaxes. She’s told him her desires, but he ignores her and makes her feel embarrassed for trying to prolong their sexual intercourse so that she, too, might have an orgasm.
Subsequently, the wife hears the call for the daily afternoon prayer. She gets up to wash herself after having sex, in accordance with Islamic practice. Her husband stays in bed to nap. After prayer, the wife gazes out the window of their apartment, thinking that she once had a view of the entire city of Cairo. The city has built up over the years, and now the view is limited to that of a single minaret (tower of a mosque). She had wished to have a house with a garden in the suburbs, but because of her husband’s job, they got an apartment in the city. She didn’t mind so much because of the wonderful view, but now it is gone. The wife prepares the afternoon coffee and brings it into the bedroom for her husband, only to find that he has suffered an attack (about which the reader receives no other information except that these attacks have happened before) and died. She tells her son to fetch the doctor, then pours a cup of coffee for herself. She thinks to herself that she is surprisingly calm.
