CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Background of the Study
The majority of the planet's surface, or about 71%, is covered by water, making it the most abundant resource. While 97% of the world’s water is in the oceans (which are overly salty for consumption, agriculture, and most commercial uses aside from cooling), 2.0% is found in ice caps/glaciers, 0.62% in groundwater, 0.009% in freshwater lakes, 0.008% in Inland seas/salt lakes, 0.001% in atmosphere and 0.0001% in rivers (United States Bureau of Reclamation, 2020).
Water is an important resource that supports all forms of life. Each and every living thing, from tiny blue-green algae to giant blue whales, need water for their survival. It is estimated that households require at least of 7.5L of water per person per day for consumption, cooking, and personal hygiene (which is the most fundamental water necessity); at least 50 litres per person per day is needed to ensure all personal and food hygiene, domestic cleaning, and laundry requirements (Howard and Bartram, 2003).
A safe, reliable, inexpensive, and readily accessible water supply is essential for optimum well-being, whether it is used for drinking, at home, for production of food, or used recreationally (World Health Organization, 2022; Hunter et al., 2010). But still for many years, approximately 1 billion folks in emerging nations lacked access to quality water supplies. In many places around the globe, including Sampou Community in Kolokuma, availability of clean, safe water remains a problem. According to the World Health Organization, more than 2.6 billion individuals lack access to clean water.
Since water-borne illnesses are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality, countries around the globe are worried about the health-risks associated with drinking dirty water (Nwabor et al., 2016). By definition, waterborne diseases are maladies that are spread via the direct intake of water contaminated with microbial pathogens (Nwabor et al., 2016). Waterborne disease is a global burden which accounts for an estimated 2.2 million deaths annually and many more cases of illness each day, including diarrhea, gastrointestinal disorders, and systemic illnesses (WHO, 2015; Bitton, 2014). Children make up about 1 point 4 million of these fatalities (WHO, 2015). According to Ingerson-Mahar and Reid (2013), waterborne diseases are estimated to cost the US economy $1 billion annually. Globally, it is believed that there is an annual economic loss of close to $12 billion (Alhamlan et al., 2015).
The majority of the population in Nigeria lack access to improved water supply and is forced to use contaminated sources to meet basic needs, which is disheartening given the numerous water-related problems the country faces (United Nations Children Education Fund, 2012). Most households have resorted to using any water in their neighborhood that is available, regardless of quality, in an effort to survive. This goes hand in hand with the general lack of information about how to properly treat and preserve water to stop further contamination (Okpasou et al., 2020).
Some of the readily available sources of water in Nigeria include springs, boreholes, wells, rivers, ponds, rainfall, and publicly supplied municipal water. According to WHO (2000), the majority of these sources are classified as unimproved drinking water sources. Multiple water supply sources were identified in the Bayelsa central senatorial region according to a study by Raimi et al. (2018). But borehole, rain, and pipe-borne water were the most commonly used types.
These waters are home to a plethora of microbial strains, a number of which have not yet been cultured, let alone identified. Various types of water have very different populations of organisms, but it is widely agreed that surface waters that have been contaminated by sewage have higher bacterial densities than clean waters. Polluted surface waters can contain a large variety of pathogenic microorganisms including viruses, bacteria and protozoa (Servias et al., 2007).
These pathogens often originate from faeces, and can be from point sources such as municipal wastewater treatment companies (Nwabor et al., 2016) and drainage systems in areas where livestock are handled, or from non-point sources such as livestock and wildlife faeces, faulty sewer and septic systems, storm drains, and urban runoffs (Williams et al., 2012; Kisteman et al., 2002; Chigor et al., 2012). Drinking surface water contaminated with faeces is recognized worldwide as one of the main causes of waterborne diseases such as cholera, salmonellosis, diarrhoea, shigellosis, infectious hepatitis, giardiasis and amebiasis.
Intermittent water supply (IWS), where water is delivered through pipes for a limited period of time, is practiced in low- and middle-income countries. In a research carried out by Bivins et al. (2017) with the aid of already available data, reference pathogens Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, and Rotavirus (RV) were used as moderate risk proxies for diseases brought on by bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, respectively. According to their research, the median daily risk of infection for Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, and RV was found to be 1 in 23,500, 1 in 5,050,000, and 1 in 118,000, respectively. Based on these risks, IWS may be responsible for 17.2 million illnesses annually that result in 4.52 million incidences of diarrhea, 109,000 DALYs (disability-adjusted life years) from diarrhea, and 1560 fatalities.. The WHO's health-based regulatory standard for drinking water is 10–6 DALYs per individual annually and the value of IWS-associated diarrheal disease is likely to exceed that of WHO (Magana-Arachchi and Wanigatunge, 2020).
The health of consumers is seriously threatened by the numerous waterborne pathogens that are prevalent in water sources. Humans may come into contact with these microbes when they drink contaminated water, consume food prepared with contaminated water, bathe, engage in recreational activities, or even undergo dialysis in a medical facility. This exposure might only affect one person, or it might result in a widespread epidemic. The morbidity and death brought on by contaminated water is significant. Therefore, it is crucial to assess the relationship between these water sources and waterborne diseases. Using the Sampou community as a case study, this research seeks to evaluate this relationship.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
In many communities around the globe, water-borne illnesses are a major public health concern. It is impossible to overstate how important water sources are in the spread of these diseases. An excellent example is the 1993 outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In the United States, it was estimated that 400,000 people experienced gastrointestinal symptoms that were largely brought on by Cryptosporidium. However, later studies contend that this may be a significant overestimation (Nwabor et al., 2016). In Walkerton, Ontario, in the year 2000, 2300 incidences of illness were reported as a consequence of an outbreak that was connected to the existence of E. coli O157:H7 in the Great Lakes region.
In the years 2001 to 2006, Legionella spp. Accounted for 126 cases of drinking water-related illness, 24 drinking water outbreaks, and 12 drinking water-related fatalities (Craun et al., 2010). Around 2007 and 2009, 38 states across the US and Puerto Rico recorded 134 outbreaks related to recreational water use (pools and interactive fountains). These resulted in at least 13,966 cases, including 24 skin diseases, 81 outbreaks of acute GIT illness (12,477 cases) and 17 outbreaks of acute respiratory illness. Parasites accounted for 64% of outbreaks, bacteria 21%, and viruses 48%. Following Cryptosporidium, the most prevalent etiologic pathogen, was bacteria E. coli O157:H7, Shigella sonnei, Pseudomonas spp., and Legionella spp (Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 2013).
According to Lopez et al. (2015), cholera is an endemic illness in the Philippines with an estimated 42,071 cases reported between 2008 and 2013. 2010 saw a number of outbreaks in Haiti and earthquake-devastated nations, including the Dominican Republic and Florida in the USA. Serogroups O1 and O139 of V. cholerae were connected to these epidemics. The epidemic caused 697,256 cases of cholera and approximately 8534 fatalities (Orata et al., 2014; Tappero et al., 2011).
In the same year, the USA recorded about 25 outbreaks connected to potable water as well as other non-recreational water. Legionella spp. bacteria were the predominant causative agents among the remaining cases. Additionally, in 2011 in Germany, consumption of raw sprouts that were irrigated with contaminated water led to fatal incidences of acute diarrhea and bloody diarrhea that were caused by an enteroaggregative Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (strain O104:H4) (Muniesa et al., 2012). Infections caused by pathogens in drinking water continue to be a major cause of illness, as evidenced by the sheer number of outbreaks that have been documented globally.
Water-related illnesses are widely prevalent in Nigeria. These diseases' causative agents have been found to cut across a wide range of organism classes. However, because the majority of those affected believe in self-medication rather than seeking professional medical help, the majority of these cases are not documented. In Nigeria, cholera, dracunculiasis, hepatitis, and typhoid are the most prevalent waterborne diseases (Adeyinka et al., 2014).
Waterborne outbreaks spread through water when either surface waters that have been contaminated with etiologic pathogens, are used for domestic or recreational purposes, or when public drinking water supplies have not been adequately treated after being contaminated. Instances of disease outbreak due to contaminated drinking water with microbes have been reported (Raji et al., 2010; Junaidu et al., 2001). A significant amount of pipe-borne water within the Sokoto metropolis was found to be polluted, according to the results of earlier studies. E. coli was among the microbes in question as well as Salmonella, Shigella, E. coli, Enterobacter, Clostridium, and Streptococcus species. The Sokoto Water Works' inadequate water treatment and damaged pipes were cited as the most frequent causes of pollution.
The role of water as a medium for the spread of all sorts of water-related diseases is no longer debatable; even ancient histories and literature contain excerpts indicating this fact (Nwabor et al., 2016).
1.3 Aim of the Study
The study is aims to comparatively analyze water sources and waterborne diseases in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The study has the following objectives:
- To identify the various water sources in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State.
- To find out which waterborne diseases are most common in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State.
- To investigate the link between water sources and the various types of waterborne diseases in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State.
1.5 Research Questions
- What are the various water sources in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State?
- What are the waterborne diseases that are most common in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State?
- What is the link between water sources and the various types of waterborne diseases in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State?
1.6 Research Hypothesis
H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between water sources and types of waterborne diseases in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State.
Ha: There is a statistically significant relationship between water sources and types of waterborne diseases in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State.
1.7 Justification of the Study
This research is fundamental to understanding the types of diseases that can be caused by the different types of water sources. The findings in this research will provide helpful resource to students. The result from this study is crucial for policymakers to make informed decisions about water management and disease prevention. It will also heighten their awareness on the need for sanitation practices, infrastructure development, and public health education campaigns.
1.8 Scope of the Study
The study focuses on the comparative analysis of water sources and types of waterborne diseases in Sampou community, Kolokuma/Opokuma Lga, Bayelsa State. Data for the study will be obtained from residents of the study area.
