researchClue.com

[i] Ritzer, H. (2012). “International Comparison of Crime and Victimization”, International Journal of Comparative Criminology, 2(1): 1-9. Last, Murray. (2008). “The Search for Security in Muslim Northern Nigeria”, Africa 78 (1): 41-63.

[ii] Reiner, J. (2010). The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown and Reequilibration. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[iii] Macionis, K. and Plomer, T. (2015). “Hijacking Civil Society: The Inside Story of the Bakassi Boys Vigilante Group of South-Eastern Nigeria”, Journal of Modern African Studies, 45(1): 89-115.

[iv] Groenewald, H and Peake, G. (2014). Police reform through community –based policing: philosophy and guidelines for implementation. Policy Paper, September 2004.

[v] Lubuva, J. (2014). Community Approach to Security, Social Inclusion and Development in Tanzania. A paper presented at the Dialogue on Promoting Coexistence and Security in the Information Society, Barcelona, September 9-11, 2014.

[vi] Bach, D. (2014). Nigeria: Towards a country without a state? a paper presented at the conference on Nigeria: maximizing pro-poor growth: regenerating the socio economic data base, by Overseas Development Institute in collaboration with Nigeria Economic Summit Group, London, 16-17 June 2014.

[vii] Odinkalu, C. (2015). When did the police become (Y)our friend?: changing roles of civil society in promoting safety and security in Nigeria” crime and policing in Nigeria: challenges and options in Alemika E.E.O and Chukwuma I.C. Eds. Lagos: CLEEN Foundation. Chapter 1: 35- 48.

[viii] Odekunle, F. (2015). Overview of policing in Nigeria: problems and suggestions. crime and policing in Nigeria: challenges and options in Alemika E.E.O and Chukwuma I.C.Eds. Lagos: CLEEN Foundation. Chapter 1:22-34.

[ix] Alemika, E., and Chukwuma, I.  (2014). The poor and informal policing in Nigeria: A report on the peoples’ perceptions and priorities on safety, security and informal policing in the focal states in Nigeria. Lagos: CLEEN Foundation.

[x] Fourchard, L. (2018). A new name for an old practice: Vigilante in South-Western Nigeria. Africa, 78(1), 16–40.

[xi] Abrahamsen, R., & Williams, M. (2015). The globalization of private security: Country Report: Nigeria. Dept of International Politics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth.

[xii] Smith, D. (2017). Confidence in the criminal justice system: What lies beneath? (Research series 7/07): Ministry of Justice.

[xiii] Buur, L., and Jenson, S. (2014). Vigilantism and the policing of everyday life in South Africa. African Studies, 63(2), 139–152.

[xiv] Jones, R. (2018). State failure and extra-legal justice: Vigilante groups, civil militias and the rule of law in West Africa. New Issues in Refugee Research, Research Paper No. 166. Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

[xv] Adigwe, A. (2013). Crime, vigilantism, and electoral violence in Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 2(9), 46–50.

[xvi] Bodunde, D., Ola, A. and Afolabi, M. (2014). Internal insecurity in Nigeria: The irony of multiplicity of security outfits and security challenges. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature, 2(5), 213–220.

[xvii] Ibid 9

[xviii] Ibid 9

[xix] Inyang, J. D., & Abraham, U. E. (2013). Policing Nigeria: A case for partnership between formal and informal police institutions. Merit Research Journal of Art, Social Science and Humanities, 1(4), 53–58.

[xx] Onwuegbusi, E. (2017). Focus on Anambra State (1) security and crime under review. Intersociety of Nigeria

[xxi] Oyagi, D. H. (2016). The role of vigilante groups in the management of security in urban centres: A case study of Sungusungu in Suneka Township, Kisii County. A research project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Arts in political science and public administration, University of Nairobi.

[xxii] Chikwendu, S., Nwankwo, I., and Oli, N. (2016). The role of vigilante service groups in crime control for sustainable development in Anambra State, South-East Nigeria. Greener Journal of Social Sciences, 6(3), 65–74

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

HISTORY OF ENUGU TOWN

2.1       Geographical Location

Although the meaning of Enugu in the Igbo language is hill top,[xxii] Enugu lies at the foot of an escarpment and not a hill. Enugu is located in the Cross River basin and the Benue trough and has the best developed coal in this area. Precambrian basement rock in this region is overlaid with sediments bearing coal from the Cretaceous and Tertiary age. Coal seams in the Enugu coal district measure between 1 and 2 metres (3.3 and 6.6 ft) in thickness and the reserves have been estimated to be more than 300 million tonnes. Enugu's hills at the extreme may reach an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Highlands surrounding Enugu for the most part are underlain by sandstone, while lowlands are underlain by shale. Much of the escarpment stretching from Enugu to Orlu has been ravaged by soil and gully erosion. Other geological features in Enugu include the Nike Lake near which the Nike Lake Hotel has been built. The Ekulu, Asata, Ogbete, Aria, Idaw and Nyaba rivers are the six largest rivers located in the city. The Ekulu River is the largest body of water in Enugu urban and its reservoir contributes to part of the city's domestic water supply.[xxii]

Enugu is located in a tropical rain forest zone with a derived savannah. The city has a tropical savanna climate. Enugu's climate is humid and this humidity is at its highest between March and November. For the whole of Enugu State the mean daily temperature is 26.7 °C (80.1 °F). As in the rest of West Africa, the rainy season and dry season are the only weather periods that recur in Enugu. The average annual rainfall in Enugu is around 2,000 millimetres (79 in), which arrives intermittently and becomes very heavy during the rainy season. Other weather conditions affecting the city include Harmattan, a dusty trade wind lasting a few weeks of December and January. Like the rest of Nigeria, Enugu is hot all year round.[xxii]

The tallest building in Enugu's Central Business District (CBD) is the African Continental Bank (ACB) tower with six stories. The tower was built in the late 50s for the African Continental Bank Limited which was founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe who became the first president of Nigeria after the country's independence from the United Kingdom on October 1960.[xxii] The opening of the building took place on 30 April 1959. Other tall buildings include the Hotel Presidential opened on August 1963. The seven story building contains 100 rooms and is located in the Independence Layout. Hotel Presidential cost $2.5 million to build and was commissioned by the government of what was then the Eastern Region to serve visiting businessmen, officials and tourists. In the middle of Enugu is the Michael Okpara Square, dedicated to the premier of the former Eastern Region Michael Okpara. Beside the square is located the Enugu State Government House, Enugu State House of Assembly and Enugu State Judiciary Complex.[xxii]

Enugu's coal mines are dotted around on the outskirts of the city, a majority of which are closed. The Colliery Camp mines are located in the Iva Valley which is near the neighbouring town of Ngwo and Hilltop of Enugu. The Iva Valley coal mine is accessed through the Iva Valley road linking Enugu with Ngwo. Other coal mines are located in the Ogbete and Coal Camp layouts; these mines are located on the periphery of the city near the Iva Valley as well.[xxii]

Architectural design in Enugu's early years was in the hands of the British colonial administration; Enugu's architecture was consequently very European. English cottage housing and Victorian houses were used for housing Europeans and Nigerian colonial civil servants in the early 20th century until Europeans started trying to adapt their architecture to the tropical climate. Some other examples of these European styles are visible in churches of the colonial era, such as the Holy Ghost Cathedral with its Greco-Roman stained glass windows depicting Europeans. Enugu's roads were reflective of its British rule; much of the city's narrow roads in the GRA have been preserved dating back to the incorporation of the city itself.[xxii] Low rent one bedroom flats in Enugu and other Nigerian cities are known as "face-me-I-face-you" for the way a group of flats face each other and form a square where a compound entrance is led into.

 

 

2.2       Land and the People

Enugu town is the capital of Enugu State in Nigeria. It is located in southeastern Nigeria. The city had a population of 722,664 according to the 2006 Nigerian census. The name Enugu is derived from the two Igbo words Énú Ụ́gwụ́ meaning "hill top" denoting the city's hilly geography. The city was named after Enugwu Ngwo, under which coal was found.[xxii]

Since the 17th century the location of present-day Enugu has been inhabited by the Nike (nee-KAY) subgroup of the Igbo people; one of Enugu's neighbourhoods still retains the village's old name Ogui. In 1900 the Southern Nigeria Protectorate was established by the colonial administration of the British Empire. The discovery of coal by the colonialists led to the building of the Eastern Line railway to carry coal from the inland city to the port of Port Harcourt, a city created for this purpose located 151 miles (243 km) south of what was called Enugu Coal Camp. Enugu was then renamed simply Enugu and developed as one of the few cities in West Africa created from European contact. By 1958 Enugu had over 8,000 coal miners. As of 2005 there are no significant coal mining activities left in the city.

Enugu became the capital of the Eastern Region after Nigeria's independence in 1960; a succession of territorial adjustments in 1967, 1976 and 1991 led to Enugu becoming the capital of what is now Enugu State. On 30 May 1967 Enugu was declared the capital of the short-lived Republic of Biafra; for this Enugu is known as the "capital of Igboland." After Enugu was captured by the Nigerian armed forces, the Biafran capital was moved to Umuahia.[xxii]

Industries in the city include the urban market and bottling industries. Enugu is also one of the filming locations for directors of the Nigerian movie industry, dubbed "Nollywood". Enugu's main airport is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport. The main educational establishment in the city is the Enugu campus of the University of Nigeria based in Nsukka, a town north of Enugu and in the same state.

The present Enugu state was created in 1991 from the eastern two-thirds of Anambra state. Enugu is bounded by the states of Kogi and Benue to the north, Ebonyi to the east, Abia to the south, and Anambra to the west. It includes most of the Udi-Nsukka Plateau, which rises to more than 1,000 feet (300 m). Enugu state is covered by open grassland, with occasional woodlands and clusters of oil palm trees. The Igbo (Ibo) constitute the majority of the state’s population.

Agriculture plays an important role in the state’s economy; yams, oil palm products, taro, corn (maize), rice, and cassava (manioc) are the main crops. Enugu, the state capital, is a major centre for coal mining. Iron ore also is mined, and deposits of limestone, fine clay, marble, and silica sand are worked. Industries include textile manufacturing, food processing, lumbering, soft-drink bottling, brewing, and furniture manufacturing. A network of roads connects Enugu town with Awgu, Ezzangbo, and Nsukka. Enugu also is linked by the eastern branch of the Nigerian Railways with Port Harcourt, and it has an airport. The University of Nigeria was founded at Nsukka in 1960. The population of Enugu as at 2006 census is 3,257,298.

 

2.3       History of Enugu Town

The first settlement in the Enugu area was the small Nike village of Ogui, which was present since the era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Nike in the Igbo language means "with strength or power." It was through slave raiding that the Nike people acquired most of their lands, which were mostly unsettled. The Nike used slaves for a defence strategy, placing slave camps at the edge of their territories so that it was harder for an enemy to access the free born. The Nike people were allied to the Aro people who formed the Aro Confederacy (1690—1901) which was an Igbo organisation that controlled slave trading in the Enugu area. Along with the Aro people who came to trade from Arochukwu in the south were the Hausa people who came to trade from the north. The Hausa traders provided horses to the Nike which were used for rituals by the Igbo. Both the Aro and Hausa migrated back and forth to what is now the city of Enugu and were considered foreigners to the area.[xxii]

A British campaign to invade Arochukwu and open up the hinterland for British military and political rule was carried out in 1901. A war between the British and Aro officially started on 1 December 1901 lasting till 24 March 1902 when the Aro were defeated. The Aro Confederacy ended and the rest of Aro dominated areas was added to The Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, declared in 1900. Europeans first arrived in the Enugu area in 1903 when the British/Australian geologist Albert Ernest Kitson led an exploration of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate to search for especially valued mineral resources under the supervision of the Imperial Institute, London. By 1909 coal was found under the village of Enugwu Ngwo in the Udi and Okoga areas and by 1913 the coal was confirmed to be in quantities that would be viable commercially.[xxii] By 1914 the colonial government had already merged the Northern and Southern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.

In 1915 the British began talks with the indigenous people of the land that would become Enugu about its acquisition in order to lay the Eastern Line railway and to build a colliery. The first houses built in the area were in a temporary settlement consisting of Igbo traditional mud housing inhabited by a W.J. Leck and some other Europeans on Hill-top, the only plain on the escarpment rolling before the jungled Milliken Hill. Antiques of the old residence of the colonialists called the "Europeans quarters" still abound on the Hill-top, an outskirt of Enugwu-Ngwo town. Another settlement known as Ugwu Alfred (Igbo: Alfred's Hill) or "Alfred's Camp", inhabited by an Alfred Inoma (a leader of indigenous labourers from Onitsha) and his labourers, was located on a hillside. After the land acquisition by the British, Frederick Lugard, the Governor-General of Nigeria at the time, named the colliery built at the bottom of the Udi Hills Enugu Coal Camp to distinguish it from Enugwu Ngwo which overlooks the city from atop a scarp on Enugu's west. The first coal mine in the Enugu area was the Udi mine opened in 1915 which was shut down two years later and replaced with the Iva Valley mine.[xxii] Enugu became a major coal mining area and the only significant one in West Africa. The Eastern Line railway connecting Enugu with Port Harcourt was completed in 1916 in order to export the coal through its seaport of which the city was created for this purpose. Enugu became one of the few cities in West Africa created out of contact with Europeans. By 1916 parts of Enugu reserved for Europeans were set up by the colonial government. The area now known as the Government Reserved Area (GRA) became the European Quarters located north of the Ogbete River; alongside this was a section developed for African residents located south of the river. The built-up area of Enugu comprised these two areas, and by 1917 the city officially gained township status. On the African side of the city a rapid influx of migrant workers sparked the development of squatter camps on the Udi Hills near the coal mines and the Iva Valley.

In 1938 Enugu became the administrative capital of the Eastern Region. The number of employed coal miners in Enugu grew from 6,000 (of mostly Udi men) in 1948 to 8,000 in 1958. Enugu's population rose sharply with its industrialisation; the population of the city reached 62,000 in 1952. Mining in Enugu was sometimes turbulent, as demonstrated by the events of 18 November 1949 when 21 striking miners were shot and killed and 51 wounded by police under British governance. The massacre that came to be known as "The Iva Valley Shooting" fuelled nationalist or "Zikist" sentiments among most Nigerians, and especially amongst Eastern Nigerians. "Zikisim" was a post World War II movement that was created out of admiration for Nnamdi Azikiwe who was a prominent nationalist of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC).[xxii] The shooting was right after a period of unrest when miners were angered by the belief that their full pay was being held back by the colliery management, a belief that was pushed by the nationalist press. Many of the Zikists tried to use the Iva Valley shooting to fuel their nationalistic agenda and push the British imperial administration, out of Nigeria.

Enugu became a municipality in 1956 with Umaru Altine its first mayor. After four years passed, Nigeria gained its independence in 1960. On 27 May 1967 the Nigerian government divided the Western, Northern and Eastern Region into 12 states and Enugu was made the capital of the new East Central State. On 30 May 1967 Enugu was declared the capital of the short-lived Republic of Biafra, the latter created out of the eastern Nigerian states of East Central, Cross River and Rivers. Biafra was declared by Ojukwu because of Eastern Nigeria after their members were attacked injured and killed in a series of ethnic attacks launched by some other ethnic groups in other parts of the country following the first military coup executed by mostly Igbo generals, in which top northern Nigerian leaders among others were terminated.[xxii] The main rivals of the mostly Igbo Eastern Nigerians were the Hausa/Fulani people of Northern Nigeria. A northern headed war on the secession (1967—1970) and continuous attacks on the Igbos in other part of Nigeria lead Igbos from northern and western Nigeria to return to their "native" areas in eastern Nigeria and Enugu became a destination. Radio Biafra, alternatively the Voice of Biafra (formerly the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Service), was based in Enugu; it was from here that the Biafran leader, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, broadcast speeches and propaganda to Biafrans and Nigeria. Because of the war, Enugu witnessed a decrease in the number of non-Igbo, specifically non-eastern Nigerian residents. On 4 October 1967 the Nigerian military bombarded Enugu with artillery just outside its boundaries before capturing it a week later, shortly after this Umuahia became the new capital of the republic. Years after the Republic of Biafra reverted to Nigeria, Enugu is still regarded as the "Capital of Igboland."[xxii]

Enugu resumed in 1970 as the capital of the East Central State after the republic was dissolved. On 3 February 1976 the East Central State was made into two new states, Imo and Anambra; there were then 19 states in Nigeria; Enugu was the capital of Anambra. On 27 August 1991 the military dictatorship of Ibrahim Babangida divided the old Anambra State into two new states, Enugu State and Anambra State. Enugu remained as the capital of the newly created Enugu State, while Awka became the capital of the new Anambra State.

 

Endnotes

[xxii] Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl R. Galvez (2001). Facts about the world's languages: an encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present. H.W. Wilson. p. 328. ISBN 978-0-8242-0970-4.

[xxii] Egbokhare, Francis O.; Oyetade, S. Oluwole (2002). Harmonization and standardization of Nigerian languages. CASAS. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-919799-70-4.

[xxii] Nwauwa, Apollos (1995). "The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690–1720: A Theoretical Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa". Anthropos. Anthropos Institute. 90 (4–6): 353–364. ISSN 0257-9774.

[xxii] Ekechi, Felix K. (1972). Missionary enterprise and rivalry in Igboland, 1857–1914. Routledge. pp. 123–125. ISBN 978-0-7146-2778-6.

[xxii] Horton, W.R.G. (1954). "The Ohu System of Slavery in a Northern Ibo Village Group". Africa. Edinburgh University Press. 24 (4): 311–336. doi:10.2307/1156711. JSTOR 1156711.

[xxii] Omenka, Nicholas Ibeawuchi (1989). The school in the service of evangelization: the Catholic educational impact in eastern Nigeria, 1886–1950. BRILL, 1989. pp. 112–115. ISBN 978-90-04-08632-6.

[xxii] Ikein, Augustine A.; Alamieyeseigha, Diepreye S. P.; Azaiki, Steve S. (2008). Oil, democracy, and the promise of true federalism in Nigeria. University Press of America. p. 353. ISBN 978-0-7618-3928-6.

[xxii] Coleman, James S. (1971). Nigeria, background to nationalism. University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-520-02070-2.

[xxii] Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history, Volume 1 Encyclopedia of African History. CRC Press. p. 1115. ISBN 978-1-57958-453-5.

[xxii] Floyd, Barry (1969). Eastern Nigeria: a geographical review. Praeger. p. 282.

[xxii] Arrous, Michel Ben; Ki-Zerbo, Lazare (2009). African Studies in Geography from Below. African Books Collective. p. 98. ISBN 978-2-86978-231-0.

[xxii] Mba, H. Chike (2004). Management of environmental problems and hazards in Nigeria. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-7546-1394-7.

[xxii] Su, John J. (2005). Ethics and nostalgia in the contemporary novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-521-85440-5.

[xxii] Phillips, Barnaby (January 29, 2000). "Biafran leader looks back". BBC News.

[xxii] Berg, Jerome S. (2008). Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today. McFarland. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-7864-3674-3.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0. Introduction

This chapter is to identify and explain the procedures involved in sourcing and analyzing data relevant to this study. Other issues addressed in this chapter include the research instrument, identification of research method, study population, sample size, research sample frame, sampling procedures, validity, and reliability tests of research instruments for this research study. With data gathered, comprehensive first-hand information relating to Chinese involvement in Nigeria’s economy: challenges and prospects.

3.1. Research Design

To achieve the objective of this research, this qualitative approach was used as it aligned with the research questions and purpose and the nature of the topic. A qualitative study is interpretive, and the researchers explore a phenomenon to comprehend the reason behind the actions of the individuals or groups being studied. The purpose of this qualitative study will be to identify, examine, and understand the Chinese involvement in Nigeria’s economy: challenges and prospects.

3.2. Population

The population for this study is the texts, journals, magazines, past project relating to the studies.

3.3. Sampling Selection

For the purpose of recruiting enthusiastic and motivated related materials that will provide the quality data and information required to respond to the research questions, an information of trust and transparent relationship will be my focus. According to Creswell (2009), the strategy to create this kind of atmosphere is to purposely select reliable and related materials that will be useful to this research. The plan is to select the materials from a pool of potential texts, journals, magazines, past project relating to the studies who had high recommendations from online websites, blogs, class tutors, online applications, educational companies, research companies to provide credible information relating to their personal experience, perspective and opinion on Chinese involvement in Nigeria’s economy: challenges and prospects.

3.4. Sample Size

The samples in a qualitative study are primarily put together to reflect the purpose of the study, (Mason, 2010). This researcher purposefully selected the research texts, journals, magazines, past project relating to the studies with the foreknowledge that they will be representative of the population whose information and views were vital and comprehensive enough to answer the research questions, (Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). The selected materials will be texts, journals, magazines, past project relating to the studies that had high recommendations from online websites, blogs, class tutors, online applications, educational companies, research companies to provide credible information relating to their personal experience, perspective and opinion on Chinese involvement in Nigeria’s economy: challenges and prospects.

3.5. Instrumentation

For the purpose of this study, content analysis will be used to elicit data from texts, journals, magazines, past project relating to this study, archives, publications of research work and internets.

3.6. Validity of Research Instrument

Asika (1991) stated that validity can be defined as the extent to which a measuring instrument measures what it is designed to measure. It can also be defined as the extent to which the differences in scores taken with the measuring instrument reflect the true difference among individuals.

The instrument used for this research work is content analysis and it valid because it has high recommendations from online websites, blogs, class tutors, online applications, educational companies, research companies in such a way to deduce information in the variables of the research problems. The instrument also passes the following test of validity. These are: content test, criterion related test, construct test and discriminate validity by reducing bias, errors that might result from personal characteristics of respondents and from variability in their skill.

3.7. Reliability of Research Instrument

Osaeze and Izedonmi (2000) define reliability as the consistency between independent measurement of the same phenomenon, which implies stability, dependability and predictability of a measuring instrument. They outline three principal methods of testing reliability measurement instruments namely; Test re-test alternate form, split-half method, and test of internal consistency

3.8. Method of Data Analysis

This research work relied on content analysis method. Data generated will be analyzed theoretically so as to give an in-depth analysis of the research work.

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER FOUR

VIGILANTISM IN ENUGU TOWN

4.1       Concept of Vigilation

The word “Vigilante” originated from the Spanish word for watchman; it is a civilian or an organization that acts in a law enforcement capacity or in the pursuit of self-perceived justice without legal authority. Vigilante justice is often rationalized by the belief that proper legal forms of criminal punishment are either non-existent, insufficient, or inefficient. Vigilantes normally see the government as ineffective in enforcing the law, they often claim to justify their actions as a fulfillment of the wishes of the community. Persons alleged to be escaping the law or above the law are sometimes the victims of vigilantism.[xxii] Vigilante conduct involves varied degrees of violence. Vigilantes could assault targets verbally, physically, damage or vandalize property and even murder individuals in cases.

Vigilantism and the vigilante ethos existed long before the word vigilante was introduced into the English language. There are conceptual and psychological parallels between the Dark Age and medieval aristocratic custom of private war or vendetta and the modern vigilante philosophy.[xxii]

Elements of the concept of vigilantism can be found in the Biblical account in Genesis 34 of the abduction and rape or by some interpretations, seduction of Dinah, the daughter of Jacob, in the Canaanite city of Shechem by the eponymous son of the ruler, and the violent reaction of her brothers Simeon and Levi, who slew all of the males of the city in revenge, rescued their sister and plundered Shechem. When Jacob protested that their actions might bring trouble upon him and his family, the brothers replied "Should he (i.e., Shechem) treat our sister as a harlot?" Similarly, in 2 Samuel 13, Absalom kills his brother Amnon after King David, their father, fails to punish Amnon for raping Tamar, their sister. Recourse to personal vengeance and dueling was considered a class privilege of the sword-bearing aristocracy before the formation of the modern centralized liberal-bureaucratic nation-state.[xxii]

In addition, sociologists have posited a complex legal and ethical interrelationship between vigilante acts, rebellion and tyrannicide. In the Western literary and cultural tradition, characteristics of vigilantism have often been vested in folkloric heroes and legendary outlaws . Vigilantism in literature, folklore and legend is connected to the fundamental issues of dissatisfied morality, injustice, failures of authority and the ethical adequacy of legitimate governance.

During medieval times, punishment of felons was sometimes exercised by such secret societies as the courts of the Vehm (the medieval Sardinian Gamurra later become Barracelli, the Sicilian Vendicatori and the Beati Paoli), a type of early vigilante organization, which became extremely powerful in Westphalian Germany during the 15th century.

4.2       Emergence of Vigilation

Vigilantism and the vigilante ethos existed long before the word vigilante was introduced into the English language. There are conceptual and psychological parallels between the Dark Age and medieval aristocratic custom of private war or vendetta and the modern vigilante philosophy.

Elements of the concept of vigilantism can be found in the Biblical account in Genesis 34 of the abduction and rape (or, by some interpretations, seduction) of Dinah, the daughter of Jacob, in the Canaanite city of Shechem by the eponymous son of the ruler, and the violent reaction of her brothers Simeon and Levi, who slew all of the males of the city in revenge, rescued their sister and plundered Shechem. When Jacob protested that their actions might bring trouble upon him and his family, the brothers replied "Should he [i.e., Shechem] treat our sister as a harlot?"

Similarly, in 2 Samuel 13, Absalom kills his brother Amnon after King David, their father, fails to punish Amnon for raping Tamar, their sister.

Recourse to personal vengeance and dueling was considered a class privilege of the sword-bearing aristocracy before the formation of the modern centralized liberal-bureaucratic nation-state. In addition, sociologists have posited a complex legal and ethical interrelationship between vigilante acts and rebellion and tyrannicide.

In the Western literary and cultural tradition, characteristics of vigilantism have often been vested in folkloric heroes and legendary outlaws (e.g., Robin Hood). Vigilantism in literature, folklore and legend is connected to the fundamental issues of dissatisfied morality, injustice, the failures of authority and the ethical adequacy of legitimate governance.

During medieval times, punishment of felons was sometimes exercised by such secret societies as the courts of the Vehm, a type of early vigilante organization, which became extremely powerful in Westphalian Germany during the 15th century.[xxii]

In Nigeria, vigilantism existed in the pre-colonial era. Human Right Watch and Center for  law  enforcement  and  education  report,[xxii]  noted  that  “vigilante  and  other  self –defense groups currently operating in Nigeria have roots that reach deep into the country’s history. In the colonial era, some though not all independent local communities, especially in the South east maintained their own standing Army to defend their territory against the threat of invasion from neighbouring communities. Although there was no  equivalent  modern  day structure at that time, some parallels can be drawn between these groups which were created by  local  communities  for  their  own  protection,  and  the  more  recently  formed  self –defense groups”. This is also true in Udenu Local Government Area of Enugu State where vigilantism was used as a means of both social and crime control before the advent of colonial rule.

There is an existing legal framework for the organization of vigilante group in Enugu state. The house of assembly of Enugu State passed a bill which was signed into law in 2006 with the enactment of Enugu State Neighbourhood Association and Watch Group Law establishing the vigilante group in the State.[xxii]

This law in Enugu State establishes the vigilante group and also makes provisions for its recruitment, trainings, remuneration, administration, etc. The law provides for administrative committee at the State level comprising of the special adviser to the Governor on security matters who shall be the chairman, director of operations, two deputy directors of operation from zones other than that of the Director, a secretary who shall serve as a legal adviser to the group, a permanent representative of the commissioner of police, chairman of the security committee of the house and any other member as may be appointed by the governor. There is also a committee at the town/village level comprising of the chairman to be appointed by the governor, the president of the town union, a member appointed by the traditional ruler of the town in consultation with the Igwe-in-council, and one person from each village of the town appointed by the village. The law also established in every market in the State a market vigilante committee comprising the chairman to be appointed by the governor, the president of the market union and one person to represent each association of article of trade in the market. All these committees are legally constituted committee established to pilot the affairs of these vigilante groups and take every necessary step in ensuring that they act within their powers and duties, and ensure proper management. It then follows that the local vigilante group in Enugu State is legally established and as such is saddled with the responsibility of achieving a safe, and a crime-free State in collaboration with the police. It is therefore worthy of note that there is actually a need for this assistance in order to combat crime in Enugu State considering the fact the police alone could no longer carry out these duties effectively without local assistance.

The Enugu State Neighbourhood Association and Watch Group Law has provided definite functions for the vigilante group and made it a requirement that they are to form a synergy with the police.[xxii] In other words, they must assist the police in the work and must not choose to take laws into their hands as the defunct Bakassi boys did before now. They are also to adhere to these functions and deter from the abuse of power. The vigilante groups invariably serve as the eye of the police in their various communities and their proximity to the people in the community is indeed a proactive step to combat crime.[xxii] This provides a quick and rapid response to crime scenes and chaos in the community before the arrival of the police. The Enugu State Neighbourhood Association and Watch Group Law provides that the vigilante group should assist the police with functions such as: prevent and detect crimes; make available relevant information on criminals; make measures to ensure that criminals don’t operate in their communities; preserve law and order; recruit and train security personnel; protect lives and properties; arrest criminals and hand them over to the police for investigation and prosecution when necessary; give further assistance to the police where required in the production of witnesses.[xxii]

The Law empowers the group to arrest any person who commits a crime before them, patrol the streets or villages at any time of the day especially at night, maintain security barricades at night in appropriate place, in self-defence or to prevent the commission of a crime, arrest or prevent the escape of a person presenting danger and to maintain public order and security within the neighbourhood. The force used shall be proportionately commensurate with the circumstances leading to the use of such force. The Law empowers the Vigilante Group to question and handover to the police any person of questionable character or of suspicious movement and to enter and search any compound into which a questionable person runs while being pursued.[xxii] The law provides that the watch group shall work in partnership with the divisional police officer in the area they are registered in, justice of peace, town union and other stake holders to perform the following functions preventing crime through improving security through: joint patrols/vigilante with the police, reducing opportunities for crime by increasing crime prevention awareness campaigns, developing neighbourhood crime prevention programmes, assisting the police in identifying and finding solutions to prevalent crimes; assisting the police in detecting crime through: promoting effective communication with the police, prompt reporting of suspicious and criminal activities to the police, providing information/intelligence to the police on suspicious persons and prevalent crimes, alert the community about types of crimes prevalent and especially emerging crimes; and reducing the fear of crime through: providing accurate information about crime risks, promoting a sense of security and community spirit particularly amongst the more vulnerable, encouragement of mutual assistance and concern amongst neighbourhood members.[xxii]

The local vigilante group and its administration have the power to recruit, if need arises in accordance to the law, security personnel who shall also join in the operation to do the needful. In so doing, there are laid down rules on recruitment in order to ensure that the purpose which is geared at employing indigenes who are well informed and are conversant with the terrain and which are readily available at the right time to fight crime without any form of delay is achieved. This in turn will ensure proper identification of the group by stakeholder to check personality, decorum and good attitude to work.[xxii] The provisions of the Law are to be complied with while recruiting. Section 15 provides that “the chairman of the group in consultation with the members of the group shall recruit security guards who are of Enugu State origin for operation at the State level, and effective liaison with the town and market committees, and that every security guard will be thoroughly screened which will involve completion of application form to be designed by the group; the application form shall make provision for proper identification of the guards by (a) The traditional ruler of his town, and (b) The president of the town union or (c) The honourable member representing the constituency”.[xxii]

Upon recruitment, the group shall issue identity cards to the security guards who shall carry them at all times, and each identity card shall contain the thumbprint of the guard, his signature and his photograph. The identity card shall bear the stamp of the registering office placed in such a way that that part of the stamp shall be on the photograph and counter-signed by the divisional police officer in the area. This provision is a very important one, in the sense that a person when properly identified by the traditional ruler, town union president, and honourable member representing his constituency, is assuredly a person known in that community and he would in turn give his best to serve his community and State at large.

 

4.3       “Brotherhood” vigilant group in Enugu town

The establishment and function of brotherhood vigilante group in Enugu town is aimed at prosecuting the war against crime and corruption in town.[xxii] Brotherhood vigilante group in Enugu town is a paramilitary, non-governmental organization, established by the act of the corporate affairs commission (CAC) of Nigeria and the Enugu State Neighbourhood Association and Watch Group Law and empowered and authorized to assist the Nigeria Police Force in its current war against crime and corruption. Its office is located in Enugu.[xxii] So far since its inception in Enugu, the vigilante group has undertaken activities and programmes to prevent and control crime and corruption in Enugu including traffic control, crime watch and community policing, intelligent gathering and training on physical and moral aptitude of members. Currently the brotherhood vigilante group has concluded plans to embark on a state-wide sensitization programme through seminars, workshops, talks on crime prevention and control, etc. Interestingly, the members are well trained and equipped to establish an enduring relationship with the members of the public, constant monitoring and surveillance in the high seas against sea pirate, provision of security at specific and approved official residences, provision of mobile escort for official of Nigeria.[xxii] These are done in order to actualize the purpose of the dream of the state government. brotherhood vigilante group has a stock of trained officers and men who are versatile in discharge of their duties responsibilities for the overall benefits of the citizens of the state and Nigerians at large. This group has achieved quite a number of success in Enugu and its metropolis as far as the community policing is concerned.

 

Endnotes

[xxii] Ekeh, P.P. (2012). A Review of HRW's and CLEEN's Report “The Bakassi Boys. The Legitimisation of murder and torture”. On State sponsored vigilante groups in Nigeria.www.waado.org/nigerdelta/Documents/ConstitutionalMatter/PoliceVigilante/ ReviewBakassiBoys-Ekeh.html,(29.3:2017).

[xxii] Macionis, J.J & Plummer, K, (2015). Sociology: A global introduction. Third Edition. Spain: Pearson Education Limited.

[xxii] Marx, G. T. & Archer, D. (1999), 'Citizen Involvement in the Law Enforcement

[xxii] Scharf, W. (2010). Community justice and community policing in post-apartheid South Africa. How appropriate are the Justice Systems of Africa. Paper delivered at the International Workshop on the Rule of Law and Development: Citizen Security, Rights and Life Choices in Law and Middle Income Countries Institute for Development Studies, University of Sussex 1-3 June 2000. Available at www.ids.ac.uk/ids/ goven/accjust/scharf%20paper.

[xxii] Human Rights Watch(HRW)/Centre for Law Enforcement Education in Nigeria (CLEEN). May 2012, V9l.14, No. 5(A).

[xxii] Onyeozili, E.C. (2015). Obstacles to effective policing in Nigeria. In African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies, 1, (1).

[xxii] Owumi, B & Ajayi, J.O. (2013). Traditional values, beliefs and reliance on indigenous resources for crime control in modern South West Nigeria. An International Multidisciplinary Journal, Ethiopia, 7(1), 73-94.

[xxii] Igbokwe, J. (2012). A Curse of corrupt vigilante politics. Canada: Edmonton Alberta.

[xxii] Ikuteyijo, L. (2009). The Challenges of Community Policing in Nigeria. In international Journal.

[xxii] Okafor, N. (2016). Relevance of African traditional jurisprudence on control, justice, and law: A critique of the Igbo experience. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies, 2 (1).

[xxii] Ibid 6

[xxii] Ibid 10

[xxii] Ibid 6

[xxii] Eleke, D.C. (2012). Over 300,000 illicit small arms circulating in Anambra. International Society for Civil Liberties and the Rule of Law. Nigeria.

[xxii] Ibid 14

[xxii] Elechi, O.O. (2013). Extra-judicial killings in Nigeria. The case of Afikpo town. A Paper for Presentation at the 17th International Conference of the international Society for the Reform of Criminal Law, The Hague, Netherlands, 24-28 August, 2003.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Summary

The study examines the role of vigilante groups in security management in Nigeria (a case study of Enugu town). The study was divided into five chapters. The chapter one covers the background of the study, statement of the problem, research questions and objectives, significance of the study, scope of the study, and operational definition of terms.

The chapter two covers the conceptual framework, theoretical framework and empirical review was also included.

The chapter three covers the methodology; qualitative data of data collection was used in the study. In view of this, data were generated from secondary source materials. Data used in this research were sourced from relevant text materials. These include texts, journals, magazines, past project relating to this study, archives, publications of research work and internet. The method of data analysis that will be adopted in this research is content analysis.

Chapter four covers vigilantism in Enugu town.

The chapter five covers the summary, conclusion, recommendations and suggestion for further studies.

The summary of the findings are presented below:

• There is activities of vigilante groups in security management in Enugu town;
• There are problems facing the vigilante groups in security management of Enugu town;
• The ways by which the services of the vigilante groups are enhanced towards better security management in Enugu town are positive;

5.2       Conclusion

The study concluded that, vigilante groups play a positive role in security management in Nigeria and Enugu town in particular.

5.3.      Recommendations

Following the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are raised by the researcher.

• The government should be fully implementing free and compulsory primary and secondary education to address the high rate of illiteracy in our society.
•  The government should craft plans to empower youth economically to reduce high unemployment rate, which leads to idleness and crime in society.
• The Nigeria government should employ more police officers to shield life and property and ensure the observation of rule of law.
• The justice system should be strengthened so that the aggrieved members of the society could get their justice delivered at the right time.
• The politicians should be warned by the government against using the vigilante groups to achieve their egotistic goals.