ABSTRACT
The study examined the glass ceiling phenomenon and its implications on women economic empowerment in Lagos State, Nigeria.
The study adopted a survey research design and quantitative method of analysis. The method was suitable to investigate the relationship between the independent variable “glass ceiling” and the dependent variable “women economic empowerment.” The data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Descriptive, Frequency and Correlation Analysis were also adopted..
The findings revealed that; Majority of the women are satisfied with their career progress; they would be willing to take the higher responsibility if given the opportunity of being posted to a higher position; and they have to work harder than their male counterparts to be promoted;. Sexual harassment, cultural factors, lack of access to mentoring and networking opportunities, lack of female role models or women representation at the top, gender stereotype and bias against women were factors identified that could prevent women career growth in the workplace;. Women restrictions in their career progression have affected their ability to make decisions about their economy and contribute to the economic market; non-discriminatory promotion will improve their self esteem and negotiating power concerning their economic life were factors identified as implications to their career progress. Women should be able to hold any job for which they are qualified; organizations should have more policies and structures that provide more flexibility for women; and addressing gender bias would create more opportunities for women to reach top decision making position in the workplace, were possible solutions identified on how to curb women barrier on career development
The study concluded that, women are fighting to take back their rightful stand in the main stream of affairs; for inclusion in all spheres of life endeavour; for equal rights and opportunity, which is the human right legitimate citizen. In Nigeria, women are opposed to marginalization on the bases of sex, and this can then be explained that Nigerian women are seeking greater recognition in the society today than they are getting right now. The study further recommends that: Economic empowerment of women should be vigorously pursued;. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria should ensure that, the rights of women are in place;. Policy makers should formulate policies that will enhance women empowerment and bring about gender equality in all spheres of public affairs;. Government and other agencies should ensure there are work opportunities for female in the society in order to bring about women empowerment, and to promote organizational equality.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
In the past years, as stated by Coleman (2010), it has now become perhaps an accepted generalization that women constitute an integral and indispensable force in the quest for national development of any nation. The recognition of this wisdom has made some countries, especially the developed ones, to empower to a large extent, their women and as a result can affirm that the education and empowerment of women, brings about a positive outcome such as, but not limited to; infant mortality declines, child health and nutrition improve, agricultural productivity rises, population growth slows, economics expands and cycles of poverty are broken (Coleman, 2010). To Orucha, (2003), the progress and development of a nation is dependent on the development of the women in the society, therefore it becomes necessary to equip women with the resources needed for their development. Women’s empowerment is essential for expanding economic growth, promoting development and achieving sustainable development (Segovia-Perez, Laguna-Sanchez, Fuente-Cabrero, 2019). The argument remains that, the higher the activation of women in the labour market, the greater the growth of the domestic product by using larger labour force in qualitative and quantitative terms. According to the United Nations, the ability of women to own and control resources, and participate equally in existing markets is central to realizing women’s rights and gender equality. Nevertheless, some differences persist in women’s access to management positions in all economic sectors as evidenced by the so-called, “Glass Ceiling” which refers to the invisible barrier women face as they advance through the ranks of their chosen professions but are able to progress so far before they are stymied in their efforts to meet the upper echelons (Ferraro, 2017).
Recent studies continue to opine that there exists an obstacle to secure top managerial positions around the world, where women, compared to men, are extremely concentrated in lower-level and lower-cadre leadership positions (Mohammadu and Dariush, 2016). According to the World Economic Forum (2018), women hold just 34% of managerial positions. Among Fortune five companies, women are only 3 percent of CEOs, six percent of top managers, and 15 percent of board members. Studies by Catalyst Mickinsey and other groups indicate that firms with more women in leadership positions tend to have better performance and higher profits but women remain on the sidelines even though their “risk-smart’ approaches, people skills and leadership strength are sorely needed in business and government.
Being the largest and most populous country in Africa, Nigeria has witnessed inconsistencies and contradictions in human resources development which has paved a way for affectivity of minority groups and women (Orubu, 2016). In the developed nations, women have been able to play this important role. However, in Nigeria, the argument entails that women are still relegated to the background as they lack the educational, economic and political power necessary to actualize their innate potentials. In Nigeria, with the existence of contradictions in legal systems such as common law, religious laws and traditional beliefs, this phenomenon is predominant in workplaces and could be made manifest in form of sexual harassment, forms of discrimination, wage differences and so on (Orubu, Oboreh, 2016). The general conditions of formal structures still show the effect of glass ceiling and its implications on women economic empowerment. The presence of women and men in top executive and decision-making positions remains unequal which makes the issue of underrepresentation remain a thing of concern from 1980s till date. Also, in the 1990s the same trend was noticed in major African countries both at federal and state ministries (and or government departments). In Nigeria for instance, well-established academics were noticeably in key positions as demonstrated in the case of three leading professional bodies in the Nigerian financial services sector—notably the Chartered Insurance Institute of Nigeria (CIIN), the Chartered Institute of Bankers of Nigeria (CIBN) and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN) (Obichukwu, 2007; Odunfa, 2006; Jimoh, 2006). Undoubtedly women, especially in Nigeria, have made a major representation in the corporate landscape. Research however shows that there is still a segregation which prevents women from attaining high positions in corporate organizations. With the achievement of educational parity and changes in social attitudes towards men and women roles, it is perhaps an assumption that women would quickly move up the ladder but this has not been the case.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Women economic empowerment is one of the main concerns when addressing development in any nation however, today many women live in a world where their economic rights, contributions and priorities have been largely overlooked and Nigeria is not an exception However in Nigeria, despite efforts made by the government and some other organizations there seems to be a significant gap in representation in key decision making areas in Nigeria. With women representing about 50% of Nigeria’s population and by extension half of the workforce, they are often disadvantaged compared to men in access to top managerial positions in various sectors. Statistics provided by UNDP’s Nigeria MDGs Report (2013) show the percentage of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector has risen just 7.4% since 1990, from 6.6% to 14.0% in 2012 According to the United Nations Sustainable Development Partnership Framework (2017), in Nigeria, women occupy about 30 percent of all posts in the public sector and 17 percent in senior management and decision-making positions. Hamilton reports (2015) indicate that women constitute less than 5% of board room seats in Nigeria. This in turn has in
The inadequate women and girl’s perspectives in policy adoption, resources allocation and implementation in economic and social sectors has affected a lot of basic services which has negatively impacted the socio-economic development. This represents huge lost opportunity for the country to boost its developmental prospects and indicates a need to understand these obstacles and provide solutions to them.
It is economic disaster to discriminate against and discourage half ofhumanity from achieving its fullpotential (Negash, 2011). In contemporary competitive environment considerable attention is generally paid to issues of the glass ceiling (Fapohunda, 2018). Recognizing the effect of the glass ceiling on women work, in addition to being workers is very crucial to policy makers in and important workplace subjects to facilitate the development of schemes to tackle and advance the policies for averting them. However, there seems to be a gap in the knowledge available on the challenges faced by Nigerian women as they go up the hierarchy and how this affects women economic empowerment. This study therefore seeks to examine the glass ceiling phenomenon and its factors and identify how this barrier affects women economic empowerment in Nigeria, using Lagos as a case study
1.3 Objectives of Research
The main objective of this study is to examine the glass ceiling phenomenon and its implications on women economic empowerment in Lagos state, Nigeria. The study’s secondary objectives are to;
- determine the knowledge and existence of the glass ceiling among working women in Lagos State
- explore the factors that influence the glass ceiling effect in Nigeria
- investigate the implications of glass ceiling on women economic empowerment in Nigeria
- suggest possible solutions on how to penetrate this glass ceiling
1.4 Research Questions
i. What is the glass ceiling phenomenon?
ii. What are the factors that influence the glass ceiling effect in Nigeria?
iii. How does the glass ceiling implicate women economic empowerment in Nigeria?
iv. What are the possible ways to confront this glass ceiling?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The glass ceiling is a topic worth further research, especially on how it affects different aspects of a woman’s life. This study shall attempt to provide an insight to the multi-dimensional barriers that lead to discrimination as a woman progresses up the hierarchy and how it may affect women economic empowerment. It is envisaged that the findings of this study should be beneficial to society as it attempts more sensitization and stirs up more need for intense reformation in workplaces and the labour market in general considering that women play an indispensable role in national and international development.
The study intends to be of great benefit to researchers, academic institutions, non-governmental organizations and the Ministry of Women Affairs and shall propose significant directives to corporate offices to recognize women’s managerial challenges and how they may defy these barriers.
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study shall investigate the factors affecting glass ceiling phenomenon, and the possible effects on women economic empowerment in Lagos, Nigeria. As one of the economic capitals of the country, with a lot of corporate offices and many opportunities in the formal sector, Lagos becomes a suitable area of study considering the fact that the term glass ceiling concerns the hierarchy in corporate offices. This research study will cover the period from 2015 to 2019. In the course of the work, the limitations the researcher might encounter are the availability of research materials and a possible attitudinal bias in responses from quantitative data. Nevertheless, these limitations will be greatly managed in order to ensure that the research remains objective in manner.
1.7 Operational Definition of Terms
Glass Ceiling: This defines a term used to describe barrier within a hierarchy that prevents women from obtaining upper level positions.
Empowerment: A multi-dimensional social process that fosters power in people, for use in their own lives, their communities, and in their society, by acting on issues that they define as important (Page and Chezubal, 1999)
Economic Empowerment: The ability to make and act on decisions that involve control over and allocation of financial resources (Golla et al. 2011)
Barrier: A formation or structure that prevents or hinders movement or action, a rule, law, or policy that makes it difficult or impossible for something to happen or be achieved.
Gender: Refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, our societies and our cultures. It includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes, and likely behaviors of both women and men (UNESCO)
Gender Equality: The state in which access to rights and opportunities is unaffected by gender.
1.8 Chapterisation/Outline of the study
This research project will be in five chapters. Chapter one will be the introduction which would incorporate the background to the study and the statement of the problem, the significance and scope of the study thereby providing an overview of the topic. Chapter two is the literature review, it will consist of two main sections: the conceptual review where the main concepts of the study will be explained, and theoretical framework, in which theories will be provided to support the topic. The third chapter will elucidate the research methodology that would be used in satisfying the objectives of the study while the fourth chapter will discuss the findings and analysis of the study. Finally, chapter five will conclude this project and offer suitable recommendations for further studies based on the findings of the study.
