LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
Table 1.1 Other Names of Plant 5
Table 1.2 5
Table 4.1: General Test Result of Phytochemical Screening 23
Table 4.2: Effect of Sphenostylis stenocarpa on the weight and blood
glucose level of wista albino rat 24
Table 4.3: A lipid profile analysis of the effect of Sphenostylis stenocarpa
on wista albino 26
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
Figure 1.1 Sphenostylis stenocarpa (African Yam Bean) 4
Figure 4.1: Graph showing the effect of Sphenostylis stenocarpa on the
weight and blood glucose level of wista albino rat 25
Figure 4.2: Graph showing the A lipid profile analysis of the effect of
Sphenostylis stenocarpa on of wista albino rats 27
ABSTRACT
This research investigated the effect of methanolic root extract of Sphenostylis stenocarpa on diabeteic abino wista rats. The fractions of various solvents of 2g each of Sphenostylis stenocarpa root extract were subjected to preliminary phytochemical screening, to identify the secondary metabolites present. The result showed that 50% methanolic extracts of Sphenostylis stenocarpa have indicated high level of anti-diabetic activity. The extracts exhibited anti-hyperglycemic activity comparable to that of a standard anti-diabetic drug 5mL/body weight, glibenclamide.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
List of table vii
List of Figure viii
Abstract ix
Table of contents x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1
1.2 EPIDEMIOLOGY 2
1.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT 4
1.4 PLANT USE 5
1.5 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 6
1.6 AIM AND OBJECTIVES 7
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 PLANT DESCRIPTION 8
2.2 MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE OF THE PLANT
(Sphenostylis stenocarpa) 9
2.3 DIABETES 11
2.4 SYMPTOMS OF DIABETES 14
2.5 COMPLICATIONS RESULTING FROM UNTREATED DIABETES 14
2.6 COMPREHENSIVE CAUSES OF DIABETES 14
2.7 PREVENTION OF DIABETES 15
2.8 CURE OF DIABETES 15
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 15
3.1 PLANTS MATERIALS 15
3.2 METHODS 15
3.3 PREPARATION OF EXTRACTS 17
3.4 PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING 17
3.5 EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS 19
3.6 ANIMAL GROUPING AND ADMINISTRATION OF ROOT
EXTRACT 19
3.7 BLOOD SAMPLE COLLECTION 20
3.8 LIPID PROFILE TEST 20
3.9 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 22
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 23
4.1 RESULTS 23
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 28
4.3 DISCUSSION 30
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 33
5.1 CONCLUSION 33
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 33
REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Diabetes is a chronic disorder of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism characterized by increased blood glucose level (hyperglycemia) resulting from the defects in insulin action (Deore, 2011). It is one of the alarming worldwide health problems at present leading to micro vascular and macro vascular: heart attack, stroke and pheripheral vascular disease complications (Dewanjee et al., 2009).
Diabetes is a major worldwide health problem predisposing the patients to markedly increased cardiovascular mortality and serious morbidity and mortality related to the development of neuropathy. Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia, abnormal insulin secretion, altered metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates (Patel et al., 2011). It is becoming the third “killer” of the health of mankind along with cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (Chauhan et al., 2010). Diabetes is usually accompanied by increased production of free radicals or impaired antioxidant defenses. Maritime et al., 2003 reported that oxidative stress plays a major role in the pathogenesis of diabetes. This increased oxidative stress is accompanied by a decreased antioxidant capacity. Hyperlipidemia is the presence of raised or abnormal levels of lipids and/or lipoproteins in the blood. According to the latest studies, hyperlipidemia leads to oxidative stress (Li et al., 2008). Usage of antioxidants helps in reducing risks of oxidative damages in diabetic and hyperlipidemic patients (Yang et al., 2006). There is growing interest towards natural antioxidants from herbal sources (Larson, 1998). Legume seeds are a rich source of many substances with antioxidant properties, including plant phenolics. Phenolic compounds do not only effectively prevent oxidation in foods; they also act as protective factors against oxidative damage in the human body. Sphenostylis stenocarpa is an herbaceous leguminous plant occurring throughout tropical African (Porker, 1992). It is one of the lesser-known and under-utilized legumes. Sphenostylis stenocarpa is a potential source of bioactive compounds with antioxidant activities. With the aim of improving the nutritive value of legumes, preparation techniques including germination have been developed to significantly raise the bioavailability of their nutrients (Urbano et al., 2005).
1.2 EPIDEMIOLOGY
All nations, rich and poor, are suffering the impact of diabetes. The impact is worse in those countries that are socially and economically disadvantaged. Diabetes threatens the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, increases the risk of developing tuberculosis, and is closely linked with other infections (International Diabetes Federation, 2011). The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) regional estimates for diabetes in the age group 20 to 79 years in 2011 showed significant diabetes prevalence in the seven IDF regions which consists of Africa (AFR), Europe (EUR), Middle East and North Africa (MENA), North America and Caribbean (NAC), South and Central America (SACA), South-East Asia (SEA), Western Pacific (WP). The highest undiagnosed cases are in Africa, with up to 80%. Even in Europe and North America up to 35% of cases are undiagnosed, (IDF, 2011).
More so, most of them may be asymptomatic or have mild symptoms which are ignored to other myths. Health insurance coverage is less than 5% and mostly the privileged working classes have access to it. A state in Nigeria (Imo State) has started ‘Health at your door step’ and has carried the campaign against diabetes and hypertension to its towns and villages (Hu, 2011).
In South-east Asia, 20% of the world’s populations with diabetes live in just seven countries of the region. In the Western Pacific region, 132 million adults have diabetes, the largest number of any region. In North America and the Caribbean, one adult in ten has diabetes – an epidemic fuelled by obesity and junk food (International Diabetic Federation, 2011). The Middle East and North Africa have six out of the ten countries with the highest prevalence of diabetes in the world (International Diabetic Federation, 2011). It has been estimated that the 366 million people with diabetes in 2011 may increase to 552 million by the year 2030. In 2011, 12% of deaths in South and Central America were due to diabetes – the commonest cause of death in this region. Globally, diabetes was the cause of death in 4.6 million people in 2011. This is greater than the global mortality for hypertension, AIDS, and tuberculosis (Hu, 2011). The number of people with type 2 diabetes is increasing in every country. About 80% of people with diabetes live in low- and middle-income countries. The greatest number of people with diabetes is between 40 and 59 years of age.
Health expenditure is astronomical in diabetes. In 2011, the disease caused at least US$465 billion dollars in healthcare expenditure. This constitutes about 11% of the total health expenditure in adults. Nigeria with less than 5% health insurance presents a difficult picture for its 3.1 million people with diabetes – the highest in Africa (Osibogun, 2012). The country has a population of about 150 million, of which 76 million are adults. Diabetes-related deaths in Nigeria in 2011 accounted for 63,340 people. The diabetes prevalence of 4.9% has more than doubled when compared with the 2.2% prevalence of the Professor Akinkugbe-led National Survey Report of 1997. Diabetes has been linked to tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, Malaria, poverty, undernutrition, loss of productivity, human capital, health system cost, maternal and child health, mental health, life changes, food security, climate changes, urbanisation, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and cardiovascular diseases. It is very significant that the UN has accorded diabetes a right of place as a global jeopardy and chronic killer (Alberti, 2007).
1.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT
Sphenostylis stenocarpa is a climbing legume adapted to lowland tropical conditions. It is one of the lesser-known legumes (Apata, 1990) and widely cultivated in the southern parts of Nigeria. The legumes are a good source of dietary protein (Sinha, 1977). They are cheaper than animal products such as meat, fish, poultry and egg: - therefore are consumed worldwide as a major source of cheap protein and especially in the developing or poor countries where consumption of animal protein may be limited as a result of economic, social, cultural or religious-factors (Olayide, 1982).
